Examine possible ways of managing the causes and consequences of desertification.

Examine how competition over resources in one or more extreme environments has led to tension among stakeholders.

Marks should be allocated according to the Paper 1 markbands (available under the "Your tests" tab > supplemental materials).

Desertification is a major problem in many arid and semi-arid regions, resulting in soil degradation, salinization, loss of vegetative cover, crop failure and threat to water supplies. Addressing desertification is critical in the eradication of poverty in vulnerable human populations and ensuring environmental sustainability. Management strategies should be implemented at the local and global scales, with the active engagement of stakeholders and local communities.

Possible applied themes (AO2) demonstrating knowledge and understanding (AO1):

• The causes and consequences of desertification.
• The importance of local, national and global strategies, and the need to involve local communities.
• Integrated land and water management to protect soils from degradation and salinization; countering erosion through terracing and other measures.
• Protecting vegetative cover as a major instrument for soil conservation against wind and water erosion; planting trees.
• Applying a combination of traditional practices with locally adapted land use techniques.
• Introduction of drought-resistant crops and animal husbandry.

Good answers may be well structured (AO4) and may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3) that examines the challenges of desertification in different places and scales. They might consider whether one way is easier than the other. Another approach might be to look at different scales of desertification –the causes might be global warming, but the consequences are felt locally, at a different scale.

For 5–6 marks, expect some weakly evidenced outlining of some causes and/or consequences of desertification.

For 7–8 marks, expect a structured account that includes:

• either an evidenced explanation of different management strategies to combat the causes and consequences (do not expect balance) of desertification
• or a discursive conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) grounded in geographical concepts and/or perspectives.

For 9–10 marks, expect both of these traits.

Marks should be allocated according to the Paper 1 markbands (available under the "Your tests" tab > supplemental materials).

Both arid and cold extreme environments possess considerable and increasingly valuable natural resources. These include minerals, freshwater and scenic resources. Competition over the use of these resources has resulted in tensions and conflicts between different stakeholders, especially between local people and external powers.

Possible applied themes (AO2) demonstrating knowledge and understanding (AO1):

• The issues may be discussed in relation to one or more extreme environments.
• Conflicts/tensions may be caused by increased demand for resources, such as minerals, land and freshwater, and increased pressures from tourism.
• Stakeholders occur at different scales, including local people/indigenous groups, governments, TNCs, tourists, environmentalists/conservation.
• The relative power of these stakeholders also varies with time and place.

Good answers may be well structured (AO4) and may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3) that examines the the conflict between identified stakeholders, their relative power, and the scale of the conflict. Another approach might be to reflect critically on the degree of tension and possible conflict.

For 5–6 marks, expect some weakly evidenced outlining of stakeholder tensions in an extreme environment.

For 7–8 marks, expect a structured account that includes:

• either an evidenced explanation of how competition for resources has resulted in stakeholder tensions/conflict in one or more extreme environments
• or a discursive conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) grounded in geographical concepts and/or perspectives.

For 9–10 marks, expect both of these traits.

Desertification causes and consequences were well understood although at times more was needed on managing the causes rather than just the consequences.

This was generally well answered with clear case studies and links to different stakeholders, often at different scales.

Examine the importance of permafrost in the development of periglacial landscapes.

Examine the political issues associated with mineral extraction in two or more extreme environments.

Marks should be allocated according to the Paper 1 markbands (available under the "Your tests" tab > supplemental materials).

Permafrost is the most distinctive feature of periglacial environments. Many periglacial landforms are associated with permafrost. Permanently frozen ground is overlaid by an “active layer”, which undergoes seasonal melting and freezing.

Possible applied themes (AO2) demonstrating knowledge and understanding (AO1):

• The importance of permafrost and the active layer in periglacial environments.
• Freeze–thaw processes in the active layer and frost wedging of exposed bedrock produce large areas of coarse, angular rock debris (blockfields or felsenmeer).
• Widespread areas of patterned ground, thermokarst and polygons, formed by thermal contraction, cracking and frost heave.
• The formation of pingos within the active layer.
• The role of solifluction as a transportation process within the active layer, forming solifluction lobes and terraces.
• Sediment transport by solifluction may modify the patterned ground into stone nets and stripes and produce depositional solifluction lobes and terraces.

Good answers may be well structured (AO4) and may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3) that examines the role of permafrost in the formation of periglacial landscapes. Periglacial landscapes may depend on the type of permafrost, seasonal process changes and the interrelationships between processes. The different scale of landform features – e.g. widespread areas of thermokarst, isolated patterned ground features or pingos.

For 5–6 marks, expect some weakly evidenced outlining of the formation of periglacial landforms/landscapes.

For 7–8 marks, expect a structured account that includes:

• either an evidenced explanation of the importance of permafrost in the formation of periglacial landforms/landscapes
• or a discursive conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) grounded in geographical concepts and/or perspectives.

For 9–10 marks, expect both of these traits.

Marks should be allocated according to the Paper 1 markbands (available under the "Your tests" tab > supplemental materials).

Extensive valuable mineral resources occur in different extreme environments and their exploitation poses significant human and physical challenges. Opportunities include economic gains by TNCs, governments and local populations from the exploitation of resources. They also provide employment opportunities and higher wages for local people.

Possible applied themes (AO2) demonstrating knowledge and understanding (AO1):

• Valuable mineral deposits occur in extreme environments, such as oil in North America and iron ore in Australia.
• Political issues may arise between different stakeholders, including national governments, TNCs and local peoples.
• Financial gains by TNCs and local and national government may contribute to economic and social development.
• There is the political problem of “leakage” to TNCs and a lack of skilled local labour
• Other political issues may concern environmental degradation, pollution, and disagreements over land ownership and rights.

Good answers may be well structured (AO4) and may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3) of the varying power of different stakeholders, interactions between different political forces and the connected issues, and possibilities for conflict resolution.

For 5–6 marks, expect some weakly evidenced outlining of some political issues associated with mineral extraction in one or more extreme environments.

For 7–8 marks, expect a structured account that includes:

• either an evidenced explanation of the political issues in two or more extreme environments
• or a discursive conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) grounded in geographical concepts and/or perspectives.

For 9–10 marks, expect both of these traits.

Apart from those who considered the periglacial landscape to be how man copes in this environment, there were some excellent responses here with very good knowledge and understanding shown about the importance of permafrost.

Case studies of mineral extraction were well understood but many struggled to discuss political issues. Many were just descriptive responses of their case studies (rainforests are not considered extreme environments in this syllabus).

State the difference in mean altitude, in metres, for south-facing and north-facing corries.

Estimate the percentage of cirques/corries facing east.

Outline one erosional process responsible for the formation of cirques/corries.

Explain two consequences of a warming climate on ice distribution in a glaciated mountainous area such as this.

2200 – 1500 = 700 m (units not required)

15 % (accept 14–16) (% not required)

Award [1] for the named process and [1] for explanatory development.

For example: Plucking [1] is where ice tears rock away due to it thawing and(re)freezing [1].

Other erosional processes include:

• Abrasion
• Freeze thaw

In each case, award [1] for the consequence and up to [2] for further development.

For example: Ice disappears/shrinks overall [1] because of higher rates of melting [1] and possibly less snowfall [1].

Other consequences include:

• Ice remains at higher altitude
• Aspect – ice remains on north-facing slopes (hemisphere dependent) due to aspect and less sunshine on that slope
• Ice coverage could increase if the system changes in ways that foster this (far more snow; relatively small temperature increase).

Both posed no problems.

Both posed no problems.

Generally the process was named but the development was incorrect.

There were some reasonable answers, but often candidates struggled to find a second consequence. Many unfortunately ignored the 'ice distribution' part of the question and talked about water supply and permafrost melting.

Examine the possible long-term challenges associated with tourism in one or more types of cold environment.

Examine the importance of wind in the development of two or more hot, arid landscape features.

Marks should be allocated according to the Paper 1 markbands (available under the "Your tests" tab > supplemental materials).

The focus of the response should be on tourism in different types of cold environment: including ice sheets, glaciers and permafrost in high altitude mountain regions, and high latitudes. Some long-term challenges will be similar for different types of environment, while others might be unique. Challenges might be physical, economic and social. Local and global stakeholders may be involved in the management of these long-term challenges for a sustainable future.

Possible applied themes (AO2) demonstrating knowledge and understanding (AO1):

• Challenges might include pressure on local resources, such as landscapes, water supply, and timber: exceeding carrying capacities and environmental degradation.
• Pressures on fragile ecosystems in cold environments: destruction of natural vegetation, wildlife and habitats.
• Environmental pollution by tourist activities, e.g. waste disposal in oceans and on land; air, noise and visual pollution.
• Economic challenges include: accessibility, isolation and difficult terrain; land ownership; conflicts between national/international tour operators and local people — economic leakage.
• Social challenges might include conflicts between locals and tourists.
• Climate change (and associated warming) is a long term challenge.
• Consideration could be given as to how these challenges might be managed by different stakeholders for a sustainable future.
• There may be international and local agreements regarding the creation of protected areas and national parks, the development of “green tourism” and ecotourism.

Good answers may be well structured (AO4) and may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3) of the statement in a way that examines the variety of long-term challenges in different places and scales. Another approach might be to examine the varying perspectives and varying power of stakeholders for possibilities of future management.

For 5–6 marks, expect weakly-evidenced outlining of one or more challenges associated with tourism in a cold environment.

For 7–8 marks, expect a structured account that includes:

• either an evidenced explanation of a variety of long-term challenges associated with tourism in one or more types of cold environment
• or a discursive conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) grounded in geographical concepts and/or perspectives.

For 9–10 marks, expect both of these traits.

Marks should be allocated according to the Paper 1 markbands (available under the "Your tests" tab > supplemental materials).

Both wind and water are involved in the formation of desert landscapes, although their relative importance varies from place to place and over different time scales, including the effects of possible climatic change on processes. Despite the popular image of deserts as being dominated by extensive sand seas and dunes, wind often plays a relatively minor role in landform development in many desert regions.

Possible applied themes (AO2) demonstrating knowledge and understanding (AO1):

• Understanding of the relative importance of processes of wind erosion, transportation and deposition in the formation of landscape features.
• These include: different dune systems, rock pedestals, yardangs, zeugen, deflation hollows and desert pavements.
• Wind processes are important where there is little vegetation cover, very little water, and a plentiful supply of sand.
• Wind is only able to transport fine particles, mainly very close to the ground surface, in suspension in the air, or close to the ground by saltation and creep.
• Wind deposition may lead to the formation of different types of dune systems, such as barchans and seifs, which may form part of large sand seas.
• Wind erosion is most effective close to the ground, as abrasion and sand blasting. This may result in the formation of distinctive rock pedestals, yardangs and zeugen. However, water may also be important in their formation.
• Wind erosion in the development of large deflation hollows, and desert pavements, where the selective removal of sand leaves larger rock fragments as a lag deposit.
• On a smaller scale, wind abrasion may result in polished and pitted rock surfaces, forming features such as ventifacts.
• The relative importance of wind and water in the formation of arid landscapes should be considered, especially in the formation of many large features, such as wadis, mesas and buttes, and inselbergs.

Good answers may be well-structured (AO4) and may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3) of the statement in a way that reaches an evidenced judgment regarding the importance of wind processes in landscape development. Another approach might be to examine the relative importance of different processes over varying time scales and places.

For 5–6 marks, expect weakly-evidenced outlining of the importance / relative importance of wind in the formation of at least two landscape features.

For 7–8 marks, expect a structured account that includes:

• either an evidenced explanation of the importance / relative importance of wind in the development of two or more landscape features
• or a discursive conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) grounded in geographical concepts and/or perspectives, perhaps considering the relative importance of wind compared to other processes.

For 9–10 marks, expect both of these traits.

Most candidates were able to consider some challenges with tourism in cold environments but relatively few focused on the term 'long-term'. Weaker candidates just wrote a list of challenges which were poorly applied to the question.

There was much confusion here with only a few realizing that it was a question about the formation of landscape features. Those that did often restricted their answers to simplistic accounts of dune systems. The relative importance of wind was recognized by only a few candidates. Good candidates also recognized the importance of climate change and past wetter climates in the formation of relict landscapes in arid areas.

Examine the opportunities and challenges associated with tourism in hot, arid environments.

Examine possible ways of managing the impacts of global climate change on local populations in hot, arid environments.

Refer to Paper 1 markbands (available under the "Your tests" tab > supplemental materials).

The focus of the response should be on hot, arid environments and the opportunities and challenges they pose for tourism. The opportunities and challenges are environmental, economic and social, and involve a variety of local and global stakeholders.

Possible applied themes (AO2) demonstrating knowledge and understanding (AO1):

• Opportunities for tourism include physical characteristics of the landscape and environment that give rise to a variety of different tourist activities and types of recreation.
• Other opportunities include economic gains (multiplier effects), employment and protection of fragile areas.
• Challenges include:
  
  • Environmental:

- pressures on local resources, especially water resources and groundwater. 
- possible destruction of fragile habitats ; land degradation.
- pollution and waste disposal.

• • Economic: land ownership and where the benefits go – local versus international stakeholders.
  • Social: conflicts between locals and tourists and management of sites of cultural and religious significance.

Good answers may be well structured (AO4) and may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3) that examines the variety of environmental, economic and social opportunities and challenges in different places and scales, and in varying different contexts. They may also examine the varying perspectives of different stakeholders.

For 5–6 marks, expect some weakly evidenced outlining of opportunities and/or challenges.

For 7–8 marks, expect a structured account that includes:

• either evidenced explanation of a variety of opportunities and challenges (do not expect balance)
• or a discursive conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) grounded in geographical concepts and/or perspectives.

For 9–10 marks, expect both of these traits.

A response that omits challenges or opportunities may score up to 7 marks if the evaluation is done well.

Refer to Paper 1 markbands (available under the "Your tests" tab > supplemental materials).

There is much concern regarding the possible impacts of climate change on local inhabitants of extreme environments. While the nature and severity of climate change might be debated, it is acknowledged that local inhabitants will be especially vulnerable. There has been relatively little agreement regarding how these impacts might be managed.

Possible applied themes (AO2) demonstrating knowledge and understanding (AO1):

• Likely impacts of climate change in hot, arid areas, including increasing rainfall variability, soil erosion and desertification.
• Threats to water supply, including groundwater and irrigation.
• Potential loss of grazing land and decline of fuelwood resources.
• Threats to agriculture and effects on food systems; crop failures; increasing food shortages.
• Rural–urban migration by local populations.
• Possible management strategies might include:
  • Management of impacts will involve local, national and international stakeholders; possible national development plans.
  • Possible adaptations might include: sustainable irrigation, small-scale water management systems; soil conservation measures; desert “greening”.
  • Agricultural research – drought-tolerant plants and animals.
  • Role of NGOs/international aid.

Good answers may be well structured (AO4) and may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3) in a way that examines the varied effects of climate change on local populations together with possible adaptation and management strategies. Another approach might be to compare places and examine the varying strategies for management at different scales or economic contexts (high income versus low income).

For 5–6 marks, expect some weakly evidenced outlining of the impacts of climate change on local peoples.

For 7–8 marks, expect a structured account that includes:

• either evidenced explanation of impacts of climate change on local people and a variety of possible management strategies
• or a discursive conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) grounded in geographical concepts and/or perspectives.

For 9–10 marks, expect both of these traits.

Examine why opportunities for agriculture vary from place to place in hot, arid environments.

Evaluate the main opportunities and challenges for indigenous groups in extreme environments.

Marks should be allocated according to the Paper 1 markbands (available under the "Your tests" tab > supplemental materials).

Hot, arid areas are characterized by high temperatures and low, variable annual rainfall. There is some possibility for farming, especially where water conservation and irrigation methods are used. Opportunities for agriculture will vary spatially due to factors such as access to water supply, for example by water transfer schemes, the exploitation of aquifers, access to land, capital and economic development, and different irrigation technologies. Challenges include low soil fertility, access to surface and groundwater supplies, salinization and desertification; economic and social inequalities.

Possible applied themes (AO2) demonstrating knowledge and understanding (AO1):

• Hot, arid areas are characterised by low, variable rainfall, limited surface water supplies, low soil moisture content, lack of vegetation and infertile soils.
• Opportunities will vary partly due to differences in economic development between different places.
• Opportunities are created by traditional farming, including pastoral nomadism. Traditional irrigation systems allow intensive farming along rivers and oases.
• In recent years, large-scale irrigation systems, advanced irrigation technologies, utilization of aquifers, and desalinization plants have expanded commercial farming in different places.
• Large-scale water transfers have also allowed expansion of commercial farming in different places.
• Commercialization of agriculture, specialization in certain crops and access to capital and external markets have also occurred.

Good answers may be well structured (AO4) and may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3) of the statement in a way that examines the way in which opportunities vary between different types of place and at different scales. These might reflect different agricultural systems, access to water supply and irrigation, access to capital and external markets, and the large-scale commercialization of agriculture. Another approach might be to examine the varying power of different stakeholders in the possibility of agricultural development.

For 5–6 marks, expect weakly evidenced outlining of some agricultural opportunities in hot, arid environments.

For 7–8 marks, expect a structured account which includes:

• either an evidenced explanation of why agricultural opportunities may vary in hot, arid environments
• or a discursive conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) grounded in geographical concepts and/or perspectives.

For 9–10 marks, expect both of these traits.

Marks should be allocated according to the Paper 1 markbands (available under the "Your tests" tab > supplemental materials).

Candidates may refer to hot, arid or cold extreme environments, or to both. The main challenges and opportunities for indigenous groups include adaptation to global climatic change, management of desertification, increasing competition for access to resources (e.g. oil, minerals, fish), and access to new technologies. There may be conflicts between different stakeholders, including indigenous people, national governments and transnational corporations (TNCs). It is not expected that candidates will consider all of these traits, but the focus should be on opportunities and challenges facing indigenous groups.

Possible applied themes (AO2) demonstrating knowledge and understanding (AO1):

• Adaptation to climate change – e.g. melting of ice sheets and permafrost; changes in rainfall patterns – e.g. droughts; and change to natural ecosystems, wildlife and migration patterns of animals.
• Economic development may be facilitated, leading to improvements in transport and communications, reduction in isolation, and increased wealth and job opportunities.
• Increased competition for access to resources – e.g. minerals, fossil fuels and fish).
• Challenges include threats to traditional ways of life, and conflicts between different stakeholders – indigenous groups, national governments and TNCs.

Good answers may be well structured (AO4) and may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3) of the statement in a way that examines the way in which opportunities and challenges vary between different places, and how these might vary over time. The relative power of different stakeholders might be considered in relation to the impact on indigenous groups. Another approach might be to examine contrasting places and the varying prospects for sustainable development (economy, society, environment) for indigenous groups.

For 5–6 marks, expect weakly evidenced outlining of some opportunities and/or challenges for indigenous groups in extreme environments.

For 7–8 marks, expect a structured account which includes:

• either an evidenced explanation of the opportunities and challenges facing indigenous groups in extreme environments
• or a discursive conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) grounded in geographical concepts and/or perspectives.

For 9–10 marks, expect both of these traits.

Neither essay was particularly well done as in both cases responses were descriptive with the main key word opportunities (and challenges) often omitted as the focus.

Neither essay was particularly well done as in both cases responses were descriptive with the main key word opportunities (and challenges) often omitted as the focus.

Identify one feature of the way buildings are dispersed across Antarctica.

Estimate the latitude of building A.

Outline one reason why a long-term fall in temperature might cause glaciers to advance.

Explain two geographic factors that can make very high-latitude polar regions challenging for human activity.

Near ice shelves / on the edge of the continent / coastal / concentrated on the Antarctic Peninsula / concentrated between 135 ° E and 180 ° / to the east of Ross Ice Shelf / none at the South Pole.

Accept 80 ° or 80 ° South (credit 78–82)

Award [1] for the reason and [1] for explanation/development.

For example: Volume of ice increases due to more snowfall [1] accumulation exceeds ablation/melting [1].

Other possibilities include:

• Movement of glacier accelerated by greater mass of ice
• Mass balance changes
• Reaches pressure melting point.

In each case, award [1] for a valid factor and up to [2] for development / explanation.

For example: Remoteness makes communications difficult [1] due to distance/time/hostile ocean/lack of infrastructure [1] and increases the cost of supplies/materials that have to be brought into the area [1].

Other factors include:

• Extreme cold – human discomfort
• Frozen ground/ice cover/permafrost – inaccessibility.

This was well done.

There was some confusion between latitude and longitude.

This was generally understood with regard to accumulation.

The question was reasonably well attempted although some confused high latitude with high altitude.

Briefly describe two main features of the pattern of the gas and oil extraction sites shown on the map.

Outline one physical reason why permafrost causes challenges for the industries shown on the map.

Explain three possible conflicts over the use of cold environments (such as the Arctic) for mineral extraction.

Award [1] for each valid feature.

Possibilities include:

• Two major concentrations (in Russian Federation, and Canada and USA / Alaska).
• Often found close to coastline but also penetrating inland in Russia / Canada.
• Found inside and outside the Arctic Circle / north and south of the Arctic Circle
• Not found at/beside the North Pole.
• Few in the ocean(s) – Arctic and Atlantic but not Pacific.
• Major concentrations in northern North America, and northern Eurasia / Europe / Asia
• Country with the greatest number is the Russian Federation.

Do not credit just a list of countries.

Award [1] for a valid physical reason and [1] for further development or explanation using applied knowledge of extreme environments.

Heat from the extraction process / building of settlements/infrastructure/pipelines can cause thawing of the permafrost [1], which can lead to subsidence [1].

Other possibilities include:

• Frozen ground [1] drilling can cause frictional heat which can melt the permafrost [1]. (Do not accept it is too hard to drill through.)
• Pipelines can fracture in extreme cold [1], leading to the expense of heating the pipes / raising them above the permafrost layer [1].
• Frost heave [1] means piles for pipelines are buried deep to avoid mass movement [1].

These should relate directly to mineral extraction and not to global climate change causing melting of the ice.

Award [1] for a conflict related to mineral extraction and [1] for further development or explanation using applied knowledge of extreme environments.

For example: There may be loss of the unique ecosystems due to drilling and infrastructure construction [1]; tundra species are fragile/highly vulnerable to change [1].

Other possibilities include:

• Loss of indigenous cultures due to increasingly lucrative jobs in the mining industries.
• Resource nationalism – conflicting claims between competing countries.
• Protected wildlife areas versus further oil drilling.
• Presence of a large number of military bases – future unrest in area – loss of sea passage for tankers.

Identify which state has the largest area of named deserts.

Identify the two deserts with the greatest longitudinal (east to west) extent.

Outline one reason why rainfall is low in hot, arid deserts.

Explain two challenges that low rainfall creates for agriculture in inland deserts such as those shown on the map.

Western Australia.

Great Sandy Desert and Great Victoria Desert.

Both are needed for [1].

Award [1] for the reason and [1] for some explanation of how it limits rainfall.

Diagrams should be given credit.

For example: Rain shadow [1] due to descending dry air on leeward side of a mountain range [1].

Other possibilities include:

• cold ocean currents
• latitude/sub-tropical high pressure
• continentality / interior.

The challenges may relate to difficulties growing crops or raising livestock in arid environments, or finding alternative water resources because of inaccessibility.

Award [1] for each challenge and up to [2] for further development / explanation / exemplification.

For example, desertification can occur due to the dryness of the soil [1], and susceptibility to wind erosion [1] results in loss of soil for plant roots [1].

Other possible challenges include, but are not limited to:

• salinization
• problems with water collection and storage, cost of irrigation systems.
• problems with locating/accessing underground aquifers
• competition with other water users.

(a)(i) and (ii) Generally fine although there were a number who misunderstood the meaning of longitude.

(a)(i) and (ii) Generally fine although there were a number who misunderstood the meaning of longitude.

Whilst there were some good answers using continentality or the rain shadow, many did not understand why rainfall is low in hot, arid deserts.

"Challenges for agriculture" was reasonably well understood but lacked development or explanation.

Examine the importance of water in the development of hot, arid landscape features.

Examine the extent to which new technologies might contribute to sustainable development in one or more kinds of extreme environment.

Refer to Paper 1 markbands (available under the "Your tests" tab > supplemental materials).

Both wind and water are involved in the development of hot, arid landscapes. Their relative importance has been a subject of debate and water has often not been recognized sufficiently. Water is essential for most weathering processes that occur, and infrequent but intense rainfall events have an important erosive effect with subsequent transportation and deposition. Past climatic conditions are also an important consideration, as many landforms, such as wadis, might be explained in relation to periods of higher rainfall.

Possible applied themes (AO2) demonstrating knowledge and understanding (AO1):

• The role of water in both physical and chemical weathering and in erosion,transportation and deposition.
• The formation of landscape features, such as wadis, rock pedestals, mesas and buttes.
• Understanding that precipitation, although infrequent, is often intense and may have a significant impact on landforms.
• Understanding that the nature of the ground surface and lack of vegetation is conducive to erosion by water.
• Understanding of the importance of other processes of wind erosion, transportation and deposition.

Good answers may be well structured (AO4) and may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3) of the statement in a way that explicitly examines the relative importance of water and wind processes responsible for landscape development, perhaps in different or contrasting places. Another approach might be to examine the relative importance of different processes over varying time scales, such as past climates.

For 5–6 marks, expect some outlining of one or more landscape features whose development is linked with water. The response is partial, narrow or lacks supporting evidence.

For 7–8 marks, expect a logically structured account, which includes:

• either a well-evidenced explanation of why water is important for the development of two or more landscape features
• or an ongoing evaluation (or discursive conclusion) grounded in geographical concepts and/or perspectives.

For 9–10 marks, expect both of these traits.

Refer to Paper 1 markbands (available under the "Your tests" tab > supplemental materials).

Sustainable development has social, economic and environmental dimensions.

New technologies, including the use of solar power and desalinization, may aid the development of extreme environments. Technology can be used to mitigate the aspects of extreme environments that make development difficult. New and future technologies open the possibility of further development of these regions. However, some technologies demand large inputs of energy and resources and cannot be considered sustainable.

Possible applied themes (AO2) demonstrating knowledge and understanding (AO1):

• New technologies include the use of new building and construction materials, developments in IT and communications, the development of solar power and other alternative energy sources, desalinization, hydroponics, climate controlled greenhouses, recycling and waste management.
• These technologies can be used to overcome some of the challenges of extreme environments, such as extremes of climate, access to fresh water, limits to agriculture, inaccessibility and remoteness.
• These technologies may offer social, economic and/or environmental benefits and therefore be deemed sustainable (or not).

Good answers may be well structured (AO4) and may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3) which examines the limits of different technologies in relation to different possible scenarios, eg extreme climate change. Another approach might be to examine contrasting places and their varying prospects for sustainable development (economy, society, environment), perhaps at different scales or in varying geographic (arid versus cold) or economic (high income versus low income) contexts.

For 5–6 marks, expect some outlining of one or more new technologies in extreme environment(s). The response is partial, narrow or lacks supporting evidence.

For 7–8 marks, expect a logically structured account, which includes:

• either a well-evidenced explanation of use of new technologies potentially contributing to sustainable development
• or an ongoing evaluation (or discursive conclusion) grounded in geographical concepts and/or perspectives.

For 9–10 marks, expect both of these traits.

There were some excellent responses to this question, with thorough knowledge and understanding of the importance of water in the development of landforms in hot, arid areas. Most also recognized the relative importance of wind. However, there were a large number of responses in which the question was misinterpreted and answered regarding the importance of water for habitation or agriculture in an arid area.

There were some good, well-considered responses to this question, discussing how new technologies could contribute to sustainable development within extreme environments. Such technologies include renewable energy (solar power), desalinization, hydroponics, GPS monitoring, and the use of Al. However, the use of technologies such as drip irrigation, stone lines, snow mobiles, snow cannons, ski lifts, indoor ski slopes are not considered new and each response was considered on its individual merits.

Briefly describe the distribution of thawing permafrost in Greenland.

Outline one possible reason why some permafrost in area A has not thawed.

Suggest three possible ways in which the melting of permafrost could affect local populations in areas such as those shown on the map.

Award [2] for two valid descriptions, such as latitude, compass directions, or distance. Do not accept longitude.

Possibilities include:

• Thawing permafrost is found along the coastline.
• Thawing permafrost is found in the southern half of the island.
• Thawing is found south of 70 degrees north (accept 70 to 60 degrees north)
• Thawing extends further inland on the west coast.

Award [1] for stating a valid reason why permafrost has not thawed and [1] for further outlining of why this might be the case.

For example:
The climate here is unusually cold and ground remains frozen most of the year [1]. This is most likely because of high altitude [1].
Local soils or geology may be slow to warm in summer and stay frozen [1] perhaps because of their specific heat capacity [1].

In each case, award [1] for a valid effect on local populations and [1] for further development/exemplification.
For example: Land subsidence [1] may cause buildings and/or infrastructure to collapse [1].

Other ways may include:

• Potentially easier drilling/mining of gas and oil [1] resulting in increased economic prosperity for some local populations in North America [1].
• Possible extension of farming further north [1] increasing food security for local populations [1].
• Habitat changes, animals migrate [1], affecting local populations who rely on animals as a source of food [1].

Accept any other reasonable impacts.

This was generally well answered using two valid descriptions. Those that used latitude were often not sufficiently specific.

Many candidates were able to correctly identify altitude as a possible reason. However, there were some far-fetched responses that tried to link lack of melting to human activity.

The majority of candidates were able to identify three possible factors/ways, but often did not adequately develop these with links to the local populations. Weaker responses were repetitive.